The Weaponization of Humanoid Robots from the Perspective of the Security Dilemma: Implications for Global Power and Governance

Funding

This article was funded by the Dalian University of Foreign Languages 2025 College Student Innovation and Entrepreneurship Training Program project “Robotics and National Security: Analysis Based on the Context of Sino-US Technological Competition” (Project No.: 202510172A045) and the Dalian University of Foreign Languages Youth Project “Research on the 'Complexity Turn' of Regional Concept Structure in Northeast Asia” (Project No.: 2024XJXM07)

Conflicts of Interest:

    The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the present study.

References

1. Abdulaal, M., & Deen, A. (2024). The Discursive Strategies Used in Representing Refugees in the British News Media: A Critical Discourse Approach. World Journal of English Language. https://doi.org/10.5430/wjel.v15n3p103.
2. Selected Works of Marx and Engels (201). Volumee 3. People's Publishing House.
3. Li Chen. (2025). Technological Innovation, Artificial Intelligence and Great Power Military Competition,” International Security Studies, (1), 56-58.
4. Stavrianakis, A., & Stern, M. (2017). Militarism and security: Dialogue, possibilities and limits. Security Dialogue, 49(1-2), 3-18.
5. Adams, Paul; Lukiv, Jaroslav (2025). Ukraine claims drone strikes targeted one-third of Russia's strategic bombers. How should we view this “great victory”? BBC NEWS. https://www.bbc.com/zhongwen/articles/c1kvg24ddmxo/simp.
6. Euysun Hwang (2025). Lethal Autonomous Weapons: The Next Frontier in International Security and Arms Control. The Stanford International Policy Review. https://fsi.stanford.edu/sipr/content/lethal-autonomous-weapons-next-frontier-international-security-and-arms-control
7. Defense Primer: U.S. Policy on Lethal Autonomous Weapon Systems. (2025, February 01). https://www.congress.gov/crs-product/IF11150
8. Cai Zixing & Xie Bin. (2022). Robotics. Tsinghua University Press.
9. China Academy of Information and Communications Technology. (2024). “Humanoid Robot Industry Development Research Report (2024)”, p. 24. http://www.360doc.com/content/25/0104/11/49290572_1143728408.shtml.
10. Maja J. Matarić. (2007). The Robotics Primer. MIT Press.
11. Sam Korus, “How ARK Is Thinking About Humanoid Robotics,” https://www.ark-invest.com/articles/analyst-research/how-ark-is-thinking-about-humanoid-robotics.
12. For more details, https://www.thepaper.cn/newsDetail_forward_27384136; https://www.nsf.gov/funding/opportunities/nri-30-national-robotics-initiative-30-innovations-integration/503641/nsf19-536/solicitation; https://hichristensen.com/pdf/roadmap-2024.pdf.
13. Specific documents include: “New Generation Artificial Intelligence Development Plan,” https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/content/2017-07/20/content_5211996.htm;”Proposal of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of China on Formulating the 14th Five-Year Plan for National Economic and Social Development and the Long-Term Goals for 2035,” https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/2020-11/03/content_5556991.htm; and “Guiding Opinions on the Innovation and Development of Humanoid Robots,” https://www.ncsti.gov.cn/zcfg/zcwj/202311/P020231103482413965397.pdf.
14. Robert D. Kaplan. (2013). The Coming Geowar. Translated by Han Pu. Guangdong People's Publishing House.
15. CCTV. (2025). The world's first humanoid robot fighting competition kicked off in Hangzhou, and the event was a blast. https://www.eet-china.com/news/202505261805.html.
16. Daniel M. Gerstein & Erin N. Leidy. (2024) Emerging Technology and Risk Analysis: Unmanned Aerial Systems Intelligent Swarm Technology. Homeland Security Operational Analysis Center operated by the RAND Corporation. https://www.rand.org/pubs/research_reports/RRA2380-1.html.
17. 808, ab. (2024). Eight Commonly Used Polymer Materials for Humanoid Robots. For details, https://www.aibang.com/a/51976.
18. Jacob Biba. (2025). Tesla’s Robot, Optimus: Everything We Know. Available at https://builtin.com/robotics/tesla-robot
19. Susan Vrijkotte, Bart Roelands, Romain Meeusen & Nathalie Pattyn. (2016). Sustained Military Operations and Cognitive Performance. Aerosp Med Hum Perform, 87, (8), 718-727.
20. Wang Teng. (2023). How can 'smart' AI improve the accuracy of intelligent targeting in combat?. https://junshi.gmw.cn/2023-07/24/content_36719170.htm
21. Liliana Oleniak. (2025). Russia's losses in Ukraine as of March 11: +1,300 troops, 198 drones, 75 artillery systems. https://newsukraine.rbc.ua/news/russia-s-losses-in-ukraine-as-of-march-11-1741679542.html
22. Александр Афонин. (2024). Минобороны раскрыло число уничтоженной техники ВСУ с начала СВО”. https://www.gazeta.ru/army/news/2024/12/25/24713816.shtml
23. Wang Peng. (2025). Humanoid Robots: A Technological Frontier Where Opportunities and Challenges Intertwine. China Daily Chinese website: https://column.chinadaily.com.cn/a/202503/05/WS67c807e0a310510f19ee9e12.html
24. Denise Garcia. (2023). The AI Military Race: Common Good Governance in the Age of Artificial Intelligence. Oxford University Press.
25. Herz, J. H. (2003). The Security Dilemma in International Relations: Background and Present Problems. International Relations, 17(4), 411-416.
26. Karen Münster & Ivan Arrequin-Toft. (2018).  The Essentials of International Relations (7th Edition). Translated by Pan Zhongqi. Shanghai People's Publishing House.
27. Michael White. (2009). The Fruits of War: How Military Conflict Accelerates Technological Innovation. Translated by Lu Xinyu. Sanlian Bookstore.
28. Gary Zhou. (2025).  Tesla’s Bold Leap into the Future with Humanoid Robots: The Optimus Endeavor. https://ilovetesla.com/teslas-bold-leap-into-the-future-with-humanoid-robots-the-optimus-endeavor/
29. Collins, A. (2004). State-Induced Security Dilemma: Maintaining the Tragedy. Cooperation and Conflict, 39(1), 27-44.
30. Military Compensation. (2007). https://militarypay.defense.gov/Benefits/Death-Gratuity/
31. Regulations on Military Personnel Pensions and Benefits. (2019). https://www.gov.cn/gongbao/content/2019/content_5468881.htm
32. Michael White. (2009). The Fruits of War: How Military Conflict Accelerates Technological Innovation. Translated by Lu Xinyu, Beijing: Sanlian Bookstore.
33. Li Ziyu. (2025). “A $2 million missile shot down an adversary's $10,000 drone.” The commander of the US Special Operations Command complained about the US military's heavy losses. https://world.huanqiu.com/article/4MD3pXZPjO8
34. Qin Yaqing. (2001). The Anarchism of the International System - Reading Winters' Social Theory of International Politics. The Chinese Journal of American Studies. (2), 137.
35. Sun Weiping. (2020). “Artificial Intelligence and Human's 'New Alienation'“. Chinese Social Sciences. (12), 122.
36. Don Eade. (2012). Technology and the Lifeworld: From Eden to Earth. Translated by Han Lianqing. Peking University Press.
37. Victoria Bekiempis. (2016). What Philip Zimbardo and the Stanford Prison Experiment Tell Us About Abuse of Power. https://www.newsweek.com/stanford-prison-experiment-age-justice-reform-359247
38. Chesterman, Simon. (2023). The Tragedy of AI Governance. NUS Law Working Paper,2023, No. 27.
39. From an ethical perspective, technology is a manifestation of human power and a form of action, and all human actions are subject to moral scrutiny.
40. Luciano. Floridi. (2024). Introduction to the Special Issues: The Ethics of Artificial Intelligence: Exacerbated Problems, Renewed Problems, Unprecedented Problems. American Philosophical Quarterly, 61(4), 301-307.
41. Wang Xiantao. (2020). Artificial Intelligence and the Loss of Humanity. https://bpr.studentorg.berkeley.edu/2020/11/15/artificial-intelligence-and-the-loss-of-humanity/
42. US plans to deploy an army of 100.000 humanoid robots: The AI revolution is already here. (2025). https://iartificial.blog/en/automation/US-plans-to-deploy-100-humanoid-robots-to-the-military/
43. Drones Should the U.S. Military Continue Drone Strikes? (2025).https://www.britannica.com/procon/drones-debate/Pro-Quotes
44. The Role of AI in Asymmetric Warfare: Transforming Strategies.https://totalmilitaryinsight.com/ai-in-asymmetric-warfare/
45. Pledger, Thomas. (2021). The role of drones in future terrorist attacks. Association of the United States army.
46. Qi Kai. (2024). Social Impact and Risk Governance of the New Generation of Artificial Intelligence. National Governance, (24), 37.
47. National Security Commission on Artificial Intelligence. Final Report. (2021), 9-11. https://assets.foleon.com/eu-central-1/de-uploads-7e3kk3/48187/nscai_full_report_digital.04d6b124173c.pdf
48. Ling Shengli & Yang Fan. (2019). The Evolution of China’s National Security Concept in the Past 70 Years: Cognition, Connotation and Response. International Security Studies, (6), 7.
49. Working Together to Build a Community with a Shared Future for Mankind: China's Initiatives and Actions, https://www.gov.cn/zhengce/202309/content_6906335.htm